034 - Rising Tensions

In this episode, we discuss the final subjugation of the Ionian poleis to Persian-backed tyrannies, Dareios' failed invasion of Skythia, Megabazos' conquest of Thrace, and the submission of Makedon that brought Persia right up to the foothills of Mount Olympos, at the very borders of mainland Greece; the diplomatic follies of the Athenians; and whether war was or was not inevitable, at least in the last decade of the 500s BC

540-498 BC - Rule of Macedonian king, Amyntas

515 BC - Famed doctor Demokedes flees the Persian court for his home polis of Croton; Syloson, the brother of former Samian tyrant Polykrates, enlists the aid of Persia; after brutally retaking Samos, the remaining Ionian poleis submit to Persian-backed tyrannies

513 BC - Darius crosses to Europe for Scythian expedition; forces include Miltiades, Athenian tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese; Histiaios of Miletus opposes plan to break up bridge of boats; ultimately Darius extends Persian rule over the Thracian Chersonese but fails to subdue the troublesome Scythian tribes along the northwestern shores of the Black Sea

512-511 BC - Darius leaves Megabazos with a large force (80,000) as commander in Europe; he conquers southern Thrace along the northern Aegean coastline

510 BC - Amyntas submits to Macedon becoming a Persian vassal kingdom; Darius appoints Artaphernes as satrap of Sardis and Otanes as commander of forces on coast, while he, Megabazos, and Histiaios of Miletus (his new Greek advisor) return to the royal court of Susa 

510-500 BC - Otanes captures many Greek cities in and near the Hellespont

507 BC - Athenian delegation arrives at court of Artaphernes in Sardis

505-500 BC - Potential medizing of Kleisthenes and the Alkmaionidai?; Darius warns Gadatas, satrap of Phrygia, about his harsh treatment of the Greeks

Primary Sources:

Text/Herodotus' Histories (Book 4)

Text/Herodotus' Histories (Book 5)

033 - The "Great King" Dareios

In this episode, we discuss the ascension of Dareios to the Persian throne; his consolidation of the empire and eastern campaigns into the Indus River valley; Zoroastrianism and the role Ahura-Mazda played in his reign; and his reform program, with a focus on his creation of a new script (Old Persian), his new capital of Persepolis, a tour of the bureaucratic satrapies, the Royal Road, his "sort of" Red Sea/Nile River canal, and the creation of and influence of the gold “Daric" coin

522 BC - Following death of Cambyses, Darius wins civil war and is crowned king of Persia

522-520 BC - Darius puts down revolts to his kingship throughout the empire; afterwards he reorganizes the empire, dividing it into 20+ satrapies; Lydians and Ionians assigned to a satrap in Sardis, Greeks in the Hellespont and Propontis subjected to the satrap in Daskylion; these Greek cities are ruled by tyrants favorable to Persia, and are free of satrapal interference so long as they meet requirements of tribute and military service

519 BC - Construction of the new royal capital at Persepolis begins

519-515 BC - Darius campaigns east into modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India

515 BC - Construction of the Royal Road begins

Primary Sources:

Text/Herodotus' Histories (Book 3)

Text/Herodotus' Histories (Book 4)

Text/The Behistun Inscription

032 - Kambyses

In this episode, we discuss events in the eastern Mediterranean during the reign of the Persian king, Kambyses, with a focus on the achievements and the political maneuverings between the Egyptian kings Amasis II and Psammetichos III, the Kyrenean kings Battos III and Arkesilaos III, the Samian tyrant Polykrates, and the Naxian tyrant Lygdamis; Kambyses' successful conquests of Kypros and Egypt; his failed campaigns in north Africa against the Nubians, Kyreneans, and Carthaginians; and his “madness" (as told by Herodotos) which ultimately brought his reign to an end

570-526 BC - The reign of Egyptian king, Amasis (Ahmose) II 

550-530 BC - The reign of Cyrenaean king, Battos III

ca. 546-524 BC - The reign of Naxian tyrant, Lygdamis

538-522 BC - The reign of Samian tyrant, Polykrates

530 BC - Following news of Cyrus' death, his eldest son Cambyses II at Pasargadae is hailed as the next king while his younger son Bardiya becomes satrap of Bactria

530-522 BC - The reign of Persian king, Cambyses II

530-525 BC - Cambyses plans for an invasion of Egypt; Cyprus voluntarily submits to the Persians and Polykrates switched allegiances from Amasis to Cambyses

530-515 BC - The reign of Cyrenaean king, Arkesilaos III

527 BC - Phanes of Halicarnassus, who had served as a mercenary for Amasis, also flips sides and becomes advisor to Cambyses; he manages to avoid an Egyptian eunuch chasing after him, by going to Lycia before the Persian court in Babylon

526 BC - Amasis dies from natural causes; he is succeeded by his young son, Psamtik III

526-525 BC - The reign of Egyptian king, Psamtik (Psammetichos) III

525 BC - Cambyses and his forces invade Egypt; Ionian and Aeolian Greeks of Asia Minor fight for the Persians, while Greek and Carian mercenaries also serve in Egyptian army; in the Battle of Pelusium, on the eastern Nile Delta, the Egyptian army is routed and they flee to Memphis; Cambyses lays siege to Memphis and when the city is taken, Psamtik and other prominent Egyptians are executed; Egypt becomes a subject of the Persians; then Cambyses campaigns along North Africa; while the Libyans submit willingly, the Nubians (Ethiopians), Cyrenaeans, and Carthaginians resist and so the Persian army returns to Egypt

525-524 BC - The Spartans and Corinthians attack Samos and Naxos to remove Polykrates (unsuccessful) and Lygdamis (successful) as tyrants

525-522 BC - Cambyses rules Egypt "madly"

522 BC - Polykrates is tricked into appearing before the court of Oroetes, the Persian satrap of Magnesia, where he is arrested and executed; with Cambyses off in Egypt, his brother Bardiya makes his own claim to the Persian throne; in his effort to get back to Pasargadae, he accidentally stabs himself, purposefully commits suicide, or is assassinated; a dynastic civil war erupts for control of the Persian Empire

Primary Sources:

Text/Herodotus' Histories (Book 2)
Text/Herodotus' Histories (Book 3)

031 - Kyros the Great

In this episode, we discuss Kyros' conquests of the Lydian kingdom, the Greek city-states in western Anatolia, the nomadic step-tribes of central Asia, and the Neo-Babylonian Empire; the contingents and battle tactics of his multi-ethnic military; the administration of his multi-state empire that stretched from Anatolia in the west to the Hindu-Kush Mountains in the east and to the Aral Sea and the Jaxartes River in the northeast; and his other deeds and qualities that were deemed to be so exceptional by later historians that he earned the moniker "the Great"

560-546 BC - The reign of Lydian king, Croesus

559-530 BC - The reign of Persian king, Cyrus II

556-539 BC - The reign of Babylonian king, Nabonidus

Winter 548/7 BC - After consulting the Delphic oracle of Apollo, Croesus is convinced that he should attack Cyrus to eliminate the Persian threat and so he enters into an alliance with the Spartans, alongside his other allies in the Babylonians and the Egyptians

Fall 547 BC - Battle of Pteria between the forces of Croesus and Cyrus results in stalemate; Croesus returns to Sardis and calls his allies for reinforcement

Winter 547/6 BC - Cyrus surprises Croesus and marches into Anatolia; in the Battle of Thymbra, the Lydians are defeated and the Persians take Sardis; Croesus is to be executed on a burning pyre but Cyrus gives him clemency at the last minute

Fall 546 BC - The Temple of Apollo at Delphi burns to the ground (seen as highly symbolic)

545 BC - Cyrus leaves behind a satrap (governor) and military garrison at Sardis and leads his army back to Ecbatana; along the way, the Lydians revolt (with the help of many Ionian poleis), so Cyrus dispatches his most senior generals to put down the revolt

545-542 BC - The Persian general Harpagos leads an assault on the Greek poleis of the Anatolian coastline; all either submit willingly, are defeated in battle and then submit, or flee westwards; the Asiatic Greeks, Lydians, Carians, and Lycians are now Persian subjects; the Persians though honor their native customs and religious beliefs

545-539 BC - Cyrus campaigns against nomadic step-tribes of central Asia

Fall 539 BC - Cyrus defeats Babylonian forces at Opis; then he marches his army onto Babylon and storms the city; all of Babylonia falls under Persian control; Cyrus appoints his eldest son and heir, Cambyses II, as satrap of Babylon

530 BC - Cyrus dies while campaigning in the far northeast against the Massagetai

Primary Sources:

Text/Nabonidus Chronicle
Text/Herodotus' Histories (Book 1)
Text/Xenophon's Cyropaedia

030 - Herodotos and the Rise of Persia

In this episode, we discuss the life, influences, drawbacks, and positives of the “Father of History”, Herodotos; and the political events of the Near East in the 7th and early 6th centuries BC, including the rise of the Medians and Neo-Babylonians and their destruction of the diminishing Assyrian Empire, and culminating with a young vassal king from the Persian city of Anshan, named Kyros, who overthrew the Medes and elevated the Achaemenid Persians among the other chief powers of the time (the Lydians, the Neo-Babylonians, and the Egyptians)

ca. 1000 BC - The Scythians, Cimmerians, Parthians, Medes, and Persians (as part of the Indo-European migrations) arrive on the Iranian Plateau

ca. 900-612 BC - Assyria dominates the Near East

ca. 725 BC - Sargon II of Assyria receives tribute from the tribes of the Zagros Mountains (included on the list are the Medes)

708-686 BC - The reign of first Median king, Deiokes; Ecbatana becomes the capital

705-675 BC - The reign of first Persian king, Achaemenes; Anshan becomes the capital

686-633 BC - The reign of Median king, Phraortes; the Parthians and Persians come under Median control and become their "vassals"

675-640 BC - The reign of Persian king, Tespis

646 BC - Assyrian king Ashurbanipal destroys the Elamites; the Persians, now under control of the Medes, incorporate the old kingdom of Elam (west of the Zagros along the coast)

640-580 BC - The reign of the Persian king, Cyrus I

633 BC - Median king Phrarotes dies in battle; the Scythians begin to dominate Media

627 BC - The death of the Assyrian king, Ashurbanipal

626 BC - Nabopolassar and Babylon revolt from the Assyrian Empire and establish a new ruling dynasty (known as the Neo-Babylonians)

626-605 BC - The reign of Babylonian king, Nabopolassar

625 BC - Cyaxerxes overthrows Scythians, re-establishes Median control over the Zagros

625-585 BC - The reign of Median king, Cyaxerxes

614 BC - The Medes and the Babylonians march against Assyria and sack the religious capital of Assur; Cyaxerxes' daughter, Amytis, is married to the crowned prince of Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar II, uniting the two kingdoms

612 BC - The Medes and the Babylonians capture and destroy the Assyrian political capital of Nineveh, signaling the end of the Assyrian Empire; a balance of power now exists among the four chief nations of the area: Egypt, the Neo-Babylonians, the Medes, and the Lydians

605 BC - Naboplassar dies, succeeded by his son Nebuchadnezzar II to Babylonian throne

605-562 BC - The reign of Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar II

600-585 BC - Cyaxerxes wages war against Urartians and Lydians

585 BC - The Battle of the Halys River in Cappadocia between the Lydians under Alyattes and the Medes under Cyaxerxes ends in a draw due to the total eclipse of the sun (predicted by Thales); the Halys River is established as the boundary between Lydia and Media; shortly after the battle, Cyaxerxes dies and is succeeded by his son, Astyages

585-550 - The reign of Median king, Astyages

580-559 BC - The reign of Persian king, Cambyses I

580 BC - Plagued by visions that his grandson would be his ruin, Astyages marries his daughter, Mandane, to a minor vassal---the Persian king, Cambyses I

576 BC - Mandane gives birth to Cyrus II; Astyages has another vision of his ruin and orders the child to be killed but his general Harpagus choses not to do it himself and delegates the job to a shepherd who instead raises the kid as his own

566 BC - The 10-year-old Cyrus is discovered and sent to live with his real parents

559 BC - Cambyses dies and the 17-year-old Cyrus becomes king of Persia

552 BC - Cyrus leads a revolt against his grandfather, Astyages; at the Battle of Hyrba, while leading the Persian cavalry, he trounces the Median cavalry

551 BC - An indecisive Battle of the Persian Border between forces of Astyages and Cyrus

550 BC - In the Battle of Pasargadae, Cyrus routs Astyages' army and becomes sole ruler of the Iranian Plateau; since Medes and Persians are so closely related, seen as a change in dynasty and the beginning of the Achaemenid Persian Empire

Primary Sources:

Text/Herodotus' Histories (Book 1)

029 - The First Greco-Punic War

In this episode, part 2 of 2 on the Greco-Etruscan-Carthaginian relations during the 6th/5th centuries BC, we discuss the tyrannies that arose and fell in Sicily in the first half of the 5th century BC at Rhegium/Zancle (Messana), Himera, Syracuse, Gela, and Akragas; the First Greco-Punic War and its aftermath/legacy; the decline of Etruscan power in Campania; the changes in the Carthaginian constitution following the war; and finally, the sea explorations of Himilco (northwest Europe) and Hanno the Navigator (western Africa)

507 BC - Cleander becomes tyrant of Gela
498 BC - Cleander dies and his son, Hippocrates, succeeds him as tyrant of Gela
494 BC - Samian fugitives (following their failed revolt against Persia) flee westwards and seize the city of Zancle (Messana) at the behest of Anaxillas, the tyrant of Rhegium
491 BC - Anaxillas changes his mind and kicks the Samians out of Zancle, repopulates the city, and rules as tyrant over it along with Rhegium
491 BC - Hippocrates dies and Gelon overthrows his sons to become tyrant of Gela
488 BC - Theron becomes tyrant of Akragas
485 BC - The Syracusan people force the Gamori (their aristocratic class) out of the city; they seek assistance from Gelon who uses his military to take Syracuse for himself; Gelon then makes himself tyrant of Syracuse and his brother, Hieron, takes over as tyrant of Gela
483 BC - Gelon forcibly removes the inhabitants of Kamarina and Megara Hyblaea to Syracuse; Gelon and Theron make an alliance
481/0 BC - Representatives from Athens arrive at the court of Gelon, seeking aid in their upcoming clash with Persia, but Gelon declines
480 BC - The Greek forces of Himera, Akragas, Syracuse, and Gela (all led by Gelon) defeat Hamilcar and Carthaginians in the Battle of Himera (Hamilcar loses his life); in commemoration, a Temple of Victory is built at Himera and afterwards Gelon and Akragas begin to beautify Syracuse and Akragas with new monuments of their own
478 BC - Gelon dies and his brother, Hieron, becomes tyrant of Syracuse; their brother, Polyzalos, takes over as tyrant of Gela
476 BC - Anaxillas dies and Micythus acts as regent tyrant of Rhegium
474 BC - Hieron and Cumaean Greeks defeat the Etruscans in a naval battle near Cumae; Etruscan power effectively eliminated in Campania (relegated to north Tyrrhenian Sea)
473 BC - Rhegians and Tarentines are defeated by Iapygians
472 BC - Theron dies and his son, Thrasydaeus, becomes tyrant of Akragas
471 BC - Thrasydaeus tries to attack Hieron but is routed in battle and forced to flee to Megara, where he was arrested and publicly executed; Micythus founds colony of Pyxus
467 BC - The two young sons of Anaxillas retake the throne of Rhegium; Micythus steps down peacefully; Hieron dies and his brother, Thrasybolous, becomes tyrant of Syracuse
466 BC - Thrasybolous was ousted as tyrant of Syracuse
461 BC - Leophron was ousted as tyrant of Rhegium and Zancle
ca. 460 BC - The Sicilian Greek cities had all broken away from the dominions of Gelon and Theron and had overthrown the tyrants’ heirs

Primary Sources:

Diodorus Siculus' Library of History (Book 11)

028 - The Rise of Carthage

In this episode, part 1 of 2 on the Greco-Etruscan-Carthaginian relations during the 6th/5th centuries BC, we discuss Carthage's foundation myths and early history as just another Phoenician colony, Tyre's decline and Carthage's rise as the dominant economic superpower in the western Mediterranean, the alliance between the Carthaginians and Etruscans against the western Greeks, and the Battle of Alalia and its aftermath

814 BC - The traditional foundation date of Carthage
ca. 650 BC - Carthage had grown to become a regional trade hub, centered on the north-south trading circuit of the Tyrrhenian Sea and west-east Levantine-Iberian circuit
586-573 BC - The Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar II, sieges Tyre; this wrecked havoc on Phoenician trade presence in the west, which allowed Carthage to step into the vacuum and rise to economic superpower in the western Mediterranean
ca. 580 BC - The Carthaginians and Elymians of Segesta engage in military hostilities with Greek colonists who try to colonize the land opposite of Motya; fearing future hostilities, the Carthaginians formed a military alliance with the powerful Etruscans of central Italy
ca. 560 BC - the Carthaginian general, Malchus, "conquers" Motya, Panormus, and Solus
ca. 550-530 BC - Mago was "king" of Carthage
ca. 535 BC - Battle of Alalia took place off coast of Corsica, in which the Phocaeans (who had fled westwards after Persia took their city) were completely expelled from the island by the Carthaginians and Etruscans; Corsica fell under Etruscan control
ca. 535-510 BC - 25-year war to pacify the island of Sardinia for Carthage
ca. 530-510 BC - Hasdrubal was "king" of Carthage
ca. 530 BC - Tartessos and Gades are brought to heel; Carthage controls southern Spain
ca. 525 BC - Phoenicians refuse to sail against their kinfolk and thus the plans of the Persian king, Cambyses, to conquer Carthage are thwarted
524 BC - The Etruscans are defeated outside of Cumae by the Cumaean Greeks, who reasserted their power in Campania, while lessening that of the Etruscans 
515 BC - Dorieus, angry that Cleomenes took over the Spartan throne, leaves Sparta and attempts to colonize Cinyps in north Africa but is expelled by Carthage
512 BC - Doreius again tries to colonize, this time at Eryx in Sicily but is once again stopped by Carthage and this time he loses his life
ca. 510-480 BC - Hamilcar was "king" of Carthage
509 BC - Etruscan power is further diminished in central Italy, when Rome overthrows their yoke, abolishing their monarchy and establishing the Roman Republic; Carthage and Rome become commercial allies by signing a treaty
ca. 500 BC - By this point, Carthage had gained control over the north African coastline from modern-day Morocco to the border of Cyrene

027 - The Democracy of Kleisthenes

In this episode, we discuss the political struggle between Isagoras (who was now backed by the Spartan military) and Kleisthenes who ultimately was victorious, which allowed him to institute his overhaul of the Athenian constitution; the different democratic changes that he instituted in regards to the boule (the council) and ekklesia (the assembly); and the consequences (both good and bad) from this new revolutionary government, including the gerrymandering of Attika into new tribes, the reorganization of the military structure, Athens' first diplomatic folly with the Persians, and the threat of war with Thebes, Korinth, Sparta, Chalcis, and Aigina

508 BC - Cleisthenes' and Cleomenes' power-sharing agreement formally split when Cleomenes' backed Cleisthenes' rival, Isagoras, for the archonship

507 BC - Isagoras removed citizenship from those enfranchised by Solon and the Peisistratids; Cleisthenes convinced the people to elect Alcmeon for the following year's archonship, which caused Isagoras to seek the military support of Cleomenes, forcing Cleisthenes and the rest of the Alcmeonidai to flee Athens; when Isagoras began acting like a tyrant and threatened to dissolve the boule, the Athenians besieged Isagoras, Cleomenes, and the Spartans on the Acropolis; Isagoras fled the city and the humiliated Cleomenes, along with his army, was allowed safe passage back to Sparta; Cleisthenes was then recalled and through the archonship of Alcmeon, he implemented his democratic reforms, while at the same time a delegation was sent to the court of Artapherenes at Sardis to seek an alliance with the Persians against further Spartan hostility

506 BC - Cleomenes orchestrated a three-prong attack of Attica (Peloponnesians from the southwest, the Thebans from the northwest, and the Chalcidians from the north) with the intent of installing Isagoras as tyrant of Athens; but due to differences with Corinth and between the two kings, the Spartans turned back, allowing the Athenians to defeat the Thebans and Chalcidians in succession and annexed some of their land

505 BC - the Thebans wanted revenge against the Athenians and so they enlisted the aid of Aegina, the arch-nemesis of Athens; the Aeginetans thus laid waste to many demes on the coastline but the Athenians didn't respond because at the behest of an oracle from Delphi they were advised to wait thirty years

504 BC - Cleomenes tried once again to invade Attica, this time to install Hippias as tyrant, but once again was thwarted by the Corinthians

Primary Sources:
Text/Pseudo-Xenophon (Old Oligarch)'s Constitution of the Athenians
Text/Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians
Text/Pausanias' Description of Greece (Book 1, Attica)

026 - The Tyranny of the Peisistratidai

In this episode, we discuss the ascension of Peisistratos as the first tyrant of Athens and the political maneuverings that he and his two sons, Hippias and Hipparchos, took in maintaining (and sometimes regaining) their position, which included armed warfare, trickery, political marriages, and the expulsion of many of their political enemies (who would go and found several colonies in Athens' name); the economic reforms that Peisistratos and his two sons undertook; their patronage of the arts and public works in the Agora and the Akropolis, as well as at other religious sanctuaries in Attika; their encouragement of religious festivals, especially the Greater Panathenaia and the Dionysia; and the ultimate dissolution of the tyranny brought about by the assassination of Hipparchos, the subsequent cruelty and expulsion of Hippias, and the ascendency of Kleisthenes (with the help of the Spartans)

565 BC - Peisistratos captured Nisaea, bringing an end to the wars with Megara, which ended the troublesome food blockage and enhanced his reputation

561 BC - Peisistratos seized the Acropolis with armed bodyguards and made himself tyrant for the first time, much to the chagrin and outcries of Solon

558 BC - Solon died of old age

556 BC - Resistance mounted against Peisistratos, leading the nobles to seek an alliance with the exiled Alcmeonidai; they were recalled to Athens and Peisistratos fled the city; the political alliance soon collapsed, so Megacles of the Alcmeonidai instead realigned with Peissistratos through a political marriage and thus he became tyrant of the city again; but this too was short-lived and Peisistratos was driven from the city a second time

547 BC - earthquake fells the temple of Apollo at Delphi; the Alcmeonidai were able to gain a special position of privilege thanks to their funding of the rebuilding of the temple

546 BC - After spending ten years cultivating powerful allies and a large personal army, Peisistratos invaded Attica; he crushed the Athenian army near Pallene, and became tyrant of Athens for the third and final time

540 BC - Miltiades the Elder established a colony in the Thracian Chersonese and ruled it as a tyrant, only subordinate to Peisistratos' overarching authority

534 BC - Thespis was first winner of tragedy competitions at the Dionysia

528/7 BC - Peisistratos died and the tyranny was passed to Hippias and Hipparchus

525/4 BC - archonship of Cleisthenes of the Alcmeonidai

524/3 BC - archonship of Miltiades the Younger of the Philaids

524 BC - Miltiades the Elder died and his eldest nephew, Stesagoras, replaced him as tyrant in the Thracian Chersonese

519 BC - the Athenians defended the Plataeans militarily against the Thebans

515 BC - Stesagoras was assassinated and replaced by his younger brother, Miltiades the Younger, who immediately quelled the uprising and formed an alliance with king Olorus of Thrace by marrying his daughter

515/4 BC - second archonship of Cleisthenes, but he tried to make it something more than titular (as the tyrants held the unofficial power), and for that he was banished from Athens

514 BC - Hipparchus was assassinated by the Tyrannicides, Harmodius and Aristogeiton; afterwards, Hippias' rule became oppressive

513 BC - Cleisthenes' mercenary army was defeated by Hippias' mercenary forces near Lypsidrion in northern Attica

511 BC - Cleisthenes' uses his families special privilege to get the Delphic oracle to coax Cleomenes and the Spartans to assist them in removing Hippias as tyrant; unfortunately, their first force was defeated near Phaleron

510 BC - Cleisthenes' second attempt was successful, though; Hippias was forced into exile, where he would eventually make his way to the Persian court of Darius; immediately after this the Thebans and Athenians engaged in hostilities again over Plataea, with the result of another Athenian victory


Primary Sources:
Text/Pseudo-Xenophon (Old Oligarch)'s Constitution of the Athenians
Text/Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians
Text/Plutarch's Life of Solon
Text/Pausanias' Description of Greece (Book 1, Attica)

025 - The Reforms of Solon

In this episode, we discuss the life and deeds of the great Athenian statesman, Solon, who, from his position of sole archonship, enacted various economic, political, and legal reforms that would later form the backbone for Athenian democracy in the Classical Period, but in doing so he took a moderate stance to appease everyone, which didn't quiet the ongoing social and economic problems of the state and shortly thereafter factionalism set in, leading to the next phase of Athenian political history (in which aristocratic infighting led to instability for decades and ultimately to tyranny)

ca. 625 BC - Severe agrarian crisis causes the Athenians to establish a cleruchy on Salamis; this led to continuous war with Megara, who also held claims to the island

ca. 605 BC - In order to defend their trade routes into the Black Sea, Athens challenges Mytilene for control of Sigeion in the Troad, an event which was arbitrated by Periander in favor of Athens (thanks to Solon's argument)

595 BC - Solon and Peisistratos led forces that defeated the Megarians

594/3 BC - Solon was appointed as sole archon of Athens in an extra legislative capacity to reform the constitution, which (among many other things) eliminated debt slavery and helped ease the land crisis; though wildly successful, his reforms' immediate aftermath led to increased competition amongst the elite for political offices

593-583 BC - Solon went on a self-imposed exile for 10 years following his reforms so that he couldn't be persuaded to change anything by his fellow citizens, during which he visited various rulers and wise men in Egypt, Cyprus, Lydia, and Ionia

591/0 BC - Political strife in Athens led to a period of anarchy as they were unable to elect the three archons, but it was eventually restored

580s-560s BC - Three dominant political factions (the Pediakoi, the Peralioi, and the Diakrioi) all competed for control of Athenian government

586/5 BC - Second bout of anarchy; once again was eventually restored

582/1 BC - Archonship of Damasias, at the end of which he refused to step down

579 BC - After two and half years, Damasias was driven out of the archonship; afterwards, a board of 10 archons were appointed to govern Athens

578 BC - Three traditional offices of the archons were re-established

575 BC - Ramp was built up onto the Acropolis; noble families compete for prestige through the funding of the construction of new buildings and statues atop the Acropolis, such as the Temple of Athena Polias (the precursor to the Parthenon) and a statue of Athena Promachos

566 BC - the Great Panathenaia was instituted by the archon, Hippocleides

ca. 565 BC - Solon recognized that Peisistratos was harboring feelings for a revolution to end the political strife of the three dominant political factions

Primary Sources:
Text/Pseudo-Xenophon (Old Oligarch)'s Constitution of the Athenians
Text/Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians
Text/Plutarch's Life of Solon
Text/Pausanias' Description of Greece (Book 1, Attica)

024 - Early Athens

In this episode, we discuss the early history of Athens beginning with its mythical past, and how and why the later Athenians promoted and propagandized these myths, with a particular focus on their first king Kekrops, the contest between Athena and Poseidon for the city's patronage, the birth of Erichthonios (the "love" child of Hephaistos-Athena-Gaia) who would go onto become king, the life of Theseus, and the death of the final king Kodras fighting the Herakleidai; in historical times, the abolishment of the monarchy in the Dark Ages that gave rise to the oligarchic government (first by the Medontidai and then the Eupatridai); the social organizations of the Athenians; and finally the social and economic crises at the end of the 7th century BC that brought about an unsuccessful tyranny attempt by an Olympic athlete named Kylon and Athens' first written constitution, orchestrated by a shadowy figure named Drakon

ca. 900 BC - Medontidai archon/basileus of Athens was pre-eminent in Attica

ca. 900-750 BC - the synoecism of Attica took place

752 BC - length of Medontidai archonship changed from life to ten years

681 BC - three annually elected archons (eponymous, basileus, polemarch) was introduced

ca. 650 BC - six more archons were introduced (called the Thesmothetai); collectively together with the other three they are known as the College of Nine Archons; full aristocratic revolution of Athens has taken hold

632 BC - Cylon unsuccessfully attempted to establish an Athenian tyranny

621 BC - Draco enacted first written constitution in Athenian history

Primary Sources:

Text/Pseudo-Xenophon (Old Oligarch)'s Constitution of the Athenians
Text/Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians
Text/Plutarch's Life of Theseus
Text/Pausanias' Description of Greece (Book 1, Attica)

023 - THIS IS SPARTA

In this episode, we discuss the inner-workings of Sparta's unique political, economic, and social system; included are the diarchy (dual hereditary kingship), the gerousia (council of elders), the apella (assembly), and the ephors (judicial overseers); the so-called Lykourgan land reform and the devolution of Sparta's economy; the roles of the helots (slaves), the perioikoi (non-citizens), and Spartan women; the various steps of the agoge (Sparta's education and military training system) which created spartiatai (full-citizen males); and why this unique system ultimately failed

Primary Sources:

Text/Fragments of the Poems of Tyrtaeus
Text/ Xenophon's The Polity of the Lacedaemonians

Text/Aristotle's On the Lacedaemonian Constitution

Text/Plutarch's Life of Lykurgas

Text/Pausanias' Description of Greece (Book 3, Laconia)

Text/Pausanias' Description of Greece (Book 4, Messenia)

022 - Sparta Ascendant

In this episode, we discuss the early history of the polis of Lakedaimon (Sparta), including their expansion in the southern Peloponnesos with the 1st and 2nd Messenian Wars (that brought about the formation of the helot system of slavery); Spartan society's social-class tensions and civil strife that led to reform, supposedly by the semi-mythical lawgiver Lykourgos in the 8th century BC, but more likely a gradual process during the 7th and 6th centuries BC; its military growing pains as Sparta suffered a series of losses to their neighbors, Argos (in the Argolid) and Tegea (in southern Arcadia), before eventually defeating them; the life of Chilon, one of the Seven Sages, and his role in making amendments to the Spartan constitution and in guiding foreign policy; and Sparta's ultimate rise to hegemny over their Peloponnesian and Isthmian neighbors, resulting in what modern scholars call the "Peloponnesian League"

ca. 900-800 BC - The syncoecism of the four villages on the west bank of the Eurotas River  (Pitane, Limnes, Mesoa, and Cynosoura) resulted in the formation of Lacadaemon (Sparta)

ca 800-750 BC - A fifth village, the old Mycenaean town of Amyclae, found three miles from the other villages is incorporated into the polis of Sparta

ca. 780-750 BC - The reign of Eurypontid king, Charilaus (the nephew of the semi-mythical lawgiver Lykurgas who supposedly reformed Sparta)

ca. 760-740 BC - The reign of Agiad king, Teleklos

ca. 750-725 BC - The reign of Eurypontid king, Nicander

ca. 740-720 BC - A Spartan victory in the First Messenian War brought about the annexation of Messenia and the subjugation of its people as Helotes (Helots), which transformed Sparta into a slave-holding state like no other Greek polis

ca. 740-700 BC - The reign of Agiad king, Alkamenes

ca. 725-675 BC - The reign of Eurypontid king, Theopompos

706 BC - Illegitimate Spartans, known as "Parthenai", who were the sons of Spartan women and non-Spartan men, were exiled from Sparta and founded Taras in southern Italy

ca. 700-665 BC - The reign of Agiad king, Polydoros

ca. 675-650 BC - The poets Alcman and Tyrtaeus flourished at Sparta

ca. 675-645 BC - The reign of Eurypontid king, Anaxandridas

669 BC - The Spartan army was defeated by Pheidon and the Argives at Hysiae

ca. 668-650 BC - The Helots revolted with the backing of Arcadia, Argos, Elis, and Pisa, which resulted in the Second Messenian War, but the Spartans were able to put down the revolt thanks to the martial vigor of the warrior-poet, Tyrtaeus; some Messenians were able to flee to Sicily, where they gained control of Zancle and renamed it Messene

ca. 665-640 BC - The reign of Agiad king, Eurycrates

ca. 645-625 BC - The reign of Eurypontid king, Zeuxidamas

ca. 640-615 BC - The reign of Agiad king, Anaximander I

ca. 625-600 BC - The reign of Eurypontid king, Anaxidamos

ca. 615-590 BC - The reign of Agiad king, Eurycratides

ca. 600-575 BC - The reign of Eurypontid king, Archidamos I

ca. 590-560 BC - The reign of Agiad king, Leon

583 BC - Sparta may have assisted with the overthrow of the Kypselid tyranny at Corinth

ca. 575-550 BC - The reign of Eurypontid king, Agasicles

572 BC - Sparta may have helped Elis regain control over Olympia from Pisa

ca. 560 BC - The "Battle of the Fetters" resulted in a devastating Spartan loss to Tegea

ca. 560-525 BC - The reign of Agiad king, Anaxandridas II

556 BC - Sparta helped to overthrow the Orthagorid tyranny at Sicyon

ca. 550-515 BC - The reign of Eurypontid king, Ariston

ca. 550 BC - Sparta finally subdued Tegea, but instead of conquering them, they enacted diplomacy, marking the beginnings of Peloponnesian League

547 BC - The Spartans entered into an alliance with the Lydians against the Persians, but they never provide aid as they still have Argos to deal with

546 BC - The "Battle of Champions" resulted in a Spartan defeat of Argos and the annexation of the region of Kynuria from Argive control

525-522 BC - The Spartans and Corinthians jointly depose the Samian tyrant, Polycrates

520-490 BC - The reign of Agiad king, Kleomenes

515-491 BC - The reign of Eurypontid king, Demaratos

515-512 BC - Kleomenes' half-brother, Dorieus, tried to found the colony of Cinyps on the Libyan coast but he was ultimately driven out by the Carthaginians

510 BC - Dorieus was killed in battle agains the Carthaginians, as he tried to establish a second colony, this one in western Sicily in Punic territory

Primary Sources:

Text/Fragments of the Poems of Tyrtaeus
Text/ Xenophon's The Polity of the Lacedaemonians

Text/Aristotle's On the Lacedaemonian Constitution

Text/Plutarch's Life of Lykurgas

Text/Pausanias' Description of Greece (Book 3, Laconia)

Text/Pausanias' Description of Greece (Book 4, Messenia)